II. Jamestown and Virginia

A. Virginia Company received charter (guaranteeing settlers the same rights as Englishmen at home) from King James I for settlement in America (1607). Goals:
1. Gold and wealth

2. Convert Indians to Christianity

3. Find a passage to the Indies

B. Early group suffered from laziness, starvation, malaria, and unfriendly Native Americans. Saved by leadership of John Smith and enterprise of tobacco planter John Rolfe.

1. Perfected methods of raising and curing tobacco

2. Brought capital and workers to Virginia

3. Problems with tobacco farming

a) Chained prosperity of Virginia to one crop

b) Exhausted the soil

c) Promoted large-acreage plantations which needed large amounts of cheap labor: slavery

C. Contributions of early Virginia

1. Provided model for further economic investment in America

2. First representative self-government (House of Burgesses--1619)

3. Demand for slaves (1st Africans sold by Dutch to settlers in 1619 as indentured servants)

III. New England Colonies

A. Separatists (Pilgrims) arrived at Plymouth in 1620 on Mayflower after initial settlement in Holland.
1. Mayflower Compact--first document of self-government in America.

2. After difficult first winter (44 out of 102 survived), Pilgrims survived under the leadership of Governor William Bradford. And with the help of friendly Native Americans (like Squanto)

B. Puritans settled Massachusetts Bay in 1630 for economic and religious reasons.

American Puritanism


The Puritan by Augustus Saint-Gaudens (1887)
Brookgreen Gardens, South Carolina

I. Puritan Beliefs and Values

A. Predestination--all events are foreknown and foreordained by God

B. Value of education

1. Publicly supported schools needed to oppose Satan by teaching all to read the Bible

2. Harvard founded in 1636 to train ministers

3. Probably 70% of New England literate in 1770

C. Uniformity is necessary for success

1. Persecution and expulsion of Anne Hutchinson (1638)

- Challenged the political and religious leadership of Massachusetts Bay.

2. Roger Williams expelled for "new and dangerous opinions" ((1638)

a) Preached complete separation of church and state--the state should have no influence over a person's conscience

b) Indians should be paid for lands.

c) Settled Rhode Island and established complete freedom of religion (including Jews, Catholics, and Quakers)

II. Puritan Political Life

A. Voting restricted to church members

B. Blurring of political and religious authority–theocracy, not democracy

III. Salem Witchcraft Crisis (1692)

- Group of girls accused fellow villagers of witchcraft

IV. Puritan Contributions

A. Self-government and community responsibility

1. Democracy in church rule led to democracy in town meeting

2. All community members responsible for conduct of citizens

B. Education critical for individual and community success

C. Hard work and thrift demanded of all

D. High standards of moral excellence and conscience (John Winthrop--"City Upon a Hill")

I. Slavery's Early Presence

A. First African-Americans that arrived in Jamestown in 1619 were brought as indentured servants, not slaves, so they would be set free after 7 years.

B. Very small numbers of slaves in the Southern colonies in the early years. By 1650, only 300 blacks lived in Virginia

A. Slavery, though originally adopted for economic reasons, eventually was justified by Southern whites on the basis of race.

1. Whites concluded that extermination of Indians and enslavement of Africans was logical in that whites were civilized and others were barbaric.

2. Language used to describe blacks and Native Americans was similar: "brutes, heathen, naked, etc." It also was how educated Englishmen described poor members of society.

A. Some plantations were enormous (40,000 acres, hundreds of slaves), but most were small, self-contained communities.

B. Family relationships

- Slaves attempted to construct strong families, though any member could be sold at any time

C. Work patterns

1.Most slaves (men and women) worked as field hands

2. House servants lived in better circumstances, but were isolated from other slaves on the plantation.

3. On larger plantations slaves learned trades and crafts--blacksmithing, carpentry, shoemaking, midwifery

 

18th Century American Colonies

Ben Franklin, America's 18th Century Renaissance Man

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I. Common Characteristics of Colonists

A. Most of the colonial population was of British stock and English speaking (In 1790 only 17% of white population was non-British)

B. Colonial America was overwhelmingly Protestant. Dominant groups: Puritanism in New England, Dutch Reformed and Presbyterian in Middle Colonies, Anglican in South

C. Most came with similar economic and social backgrounds. Lower and middle class stock usually from rural areas of England.

II. Four Major Regions (Plantation South, Middle Colonies, New England, and Frontier)

A. Plantation South
1. Tidewater region featured wide coastal plain, wide rivers, and rich soil particularly well-suited to tobacco farming.
a. Large plantations became economically more successful as soil was exhausted, leading to self-sufficing economic units.

b. As indentured servants became harder to obtain (and retain), demand for slaves increased (400,000) in colonies by 1776.

2. Only children of planters were educated and higher education was only for those who could afford it .

3. Plantation owners became the leading economic, political, and social forces of the South. Democracy limited to wealthy landowners.

B. Middle Colonies-- farming, manufacturing center

1. Three large rivers (Hudson, Delaware, and Susquehanna) flowed north to south and served as trade paths .

2. Large numbers of immigrants (known as “the melting pot”)

a. Dutch in Hudson Valley (New York)

b. Germans in Pennsylvania

c. Scotch-Irish in Pennsylvania

C. New England--rapid rivers and rocky soil
1. New England town meeting as center of power at first.

2. Occupations included farming (scarce labor, tough conditions), fishing, and commerce

a. Shipbuilding became major supplement to fishing and trade

b. Slavery, rum and the triangular trade with West Indies and Africa brought economic wealth to New England

D. Backcountry/Frontier--continually moving region: "The West."

1. Large families, exhausted soil encouraged westward movement

2. Religious dissenters, immigrants, and criminals all found "refuge" in the West.

3. Vigorous spirit of democracy and emphasis on individual freedom

a.Strenuous objection to any governmental interference in daily life

b. Anti-aristocratic tradition and resentment of urban east

III. 18th Century Politics

A. Questions of authority--tradition of "salutary neglect"
1. Royal governor

2. Colonial assembly

a. Voting rights

b. Growth in power

B. British governing bodies

1. Crown

2. Parliament

3. Board of Trade

IV. Economics

A. Mercantilism
1. Exclusive navigation

2. Trade must pass through home country, England

3. Create a self-sufficient economy

B. Navigation Acts

1. Early ones evaded by colonists

2. Board of Trades' efforts to enforce

C. Triangular Trade

-trade routes connecting the colonies, England, Africa, and West Indies

V. Religion

A. Population overwhelmingly Protestant

B. Anglican Church weak in colonies

C. Great Awakening--1730s and 1740s.

1. Reaction against cold, emotionless appeal of Puritan brand of Calvinism.

2. George Whitefield--emotionally intense, dynamic preacher

3. Educational revival--Dartmouth, Princeton, Brown all formed to supply New Light preachers

VI. Wars with France (King Wiliiams's, Queen Anne's, King George's Wars)

1. Issues in America
a) Fishing rights

b) Warring Indian allies

c) Frontier fighting between settlers

2. French & Indian War

a) Desire for land in Ohio Valley

b) Washington's ill-fated mission

3. Results of the French & Indian War

a) France loses Canada and all land west of Mississippi River

b) Spain loses Florida

c) Britain's national debt doubled

d) Cost of governing colonies multiplied

e) Increased trouble with Indian tribes

f) Series of restrictive laws to control colonists and raise revenues

 

Prologue to Revolution

Hanging of John Huske (Stamp Act supporter) in Effigy--Paul Revere

I. The New Imperial Policy (1763-1770)

A. Reasons for inaugurating the policy
1. Rebellious attitude of colonists

2. Western problems

a) Proclamation of 1763 - British decree forbidding colonists to move west of the Appalachian Mountains

b) Need for defense of frontier

B. Early tax measures (1763-1766)

1. Grenville taxation program.
a) More serious prosecution of smugglers

b) Sugar Act threatened triangular trade

c) Currency Act forbade the issue of paper money

d) Stamp Act (1765) sought to raise funds for defense of America.

2. Colonial opposition to new program

a) Postwar depression left Americans short on cash

a) Stamp Act Congress met to call for boycott of British goods and state that Parliament had no right to tax colonies without consent.

b) Sons of Liberty (led by Samuel Adams) used mob violence to force all stamp agents to resign.

3. Parliament repealed Stamp Act but asserted its rights (with Declaratory Act) to regulate colonies "in all ways whatsoever."

C. Townshend Acts (1767-1770)--new duties placed on a number of goods led to protests against the collection of customs duties.
1. Samuel Adams led radicals/Patriots in urging a renewed boycott of British goods.

2. Boston Massacre resulted in deaths of four persons (1770) when soldiers sent to protect agents were attacked by a mob.

3. By 1770 all duties except that on tea were repealed.

II. The Move Toward Independence (1770-1776)

A. Key factors
- Constitutional factor–colonists refused to obey laws that raised revenue (money) for England

B. Tea Act (1773)

1. In an attempt to support the East India Tea Company, Parliament removed the tax on tea and allowed it to be sold in the colonies through its own agents, not American retailers

2. Boston Tea Party:Mobs, Sons of Liberty, dressed like Native Americansturned back tea ships in several ports and dumped shiploads into Boston Harbor.

3. Parliament responded with Coercive (Intolerable) Acts which

a) Closed Boston Harbor

b) Removed trials involving royal officials out of New England

c) Allowed for the Quartering Act: quartering of troops in colonists' homes

C. First Continental Congress (1774)

- Radical delegates favored active resistance (war)while moderates argued for peaceful conciliation.

 

American Revolution

The Spirit of '76 by Archibald McNeal Willard
U.S. State Department, Washington, D.C.

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I. Strengths and Weaknesses of Opposing Sides

A. Great Britain
1. Strengths
a) Population (7.5 million to 2.5 million colonists)

b) More wealth

c) Stronger Naval forces

d) Professional army

i) 50,000 British

ii) 30,000 Hessians

iii) 30, 000 American Loyalists

2. Weaknesses in military
a) Need for clear victory. A draw would be a colonial victory.

b) Armies were 3000 miles from home and many were homesick

c) Vast colonial territory was huge and unfamiliar to the men

B. American

1. Strengths
a) Outstanding leadership
i) Military–Washington

ii) Diplomatic–Franklin

b) Colonists fighting defensively

c) Colonists were better marksmen (Americans accurate at 200 yds.)

d) Personal motivation: Americans fighting for their own freedom

e)Fighting on own land

2. Weaknesses

a) Colonies were badly organized, disunited for war.

b) Economic difficulties

i) Little currency (money) available

ii) Fearful of taxation, Congress issued worthless currency

iii) Inflation led to increased prices, desertions from army.

c) Limited military supplies

- At Valley Forge, 2800 men barefooted

II. American Secession

A. Second Continental Congress (May 1775) called Washington to lead colonial army.

B. Following Bunker Hill (costly victory for British), King George III sent more troops.

C. Thomas Paine published Common Sense, a pamphlet selling 120,000 copies.

- Appealed to natural law ("an island should not rule a continent")

D. Second Continental Congress declared independence July 2, 1776.

1. Jefferson headed the committee drafting the written statement. Arguments:
a) All people have natural rights ("Life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness")

b) When a government abuses rights, the people have a right to "alter or abolish" it

c) King George has acted tyrannically. Long list of wrongs done by King to colonists.

d) The colonies are independent.

2. Declaration gave a clear position for rebellious colonists, forcing others to choose rebellion or declare as Loyalists.

III. The War's Major Battles (1776-1781)

A.Fight begins at Lexington and Concord (“the Shot Heard around the World”).

B. England loses at Battle of Saratoga, which becomes turning-point battle for war.
 

- French become convinced that America now has a chance to win and offers navy, money, and international support with a treaty of alliance.

 C. Battle of Yorktown: British General Cornwallis surrenders to American General Washington on October 19, 1781 .

IV. Treaty of Paris (1783)

-. Major provisions
1. Britain formally recognized independence of U.S.

 2. Boundaries set from Great Lakes on the North to the Mississippi River on the West to Florida on the South

 

Articles of Confederation ("The Rope of Sand")

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Shays' Rebellion--Western Massachusetts, 1786

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I. New Social Fabrics

A. Pro-democracy efforts gained.
1. 80,000 Loyalists flee to Canada or England, leaving the nation without a conservative balance to revolutionaries.

2. Slavery weakened

a) Forbidden in many new state constitutions

b) Some northern states abolished slavery or provided for phased emancipation

B. Religious Change
 - Strong statement of separation of church and state written by Jefferson

II. Economic Stresses

A. Doing Business with Britain almost completely halted.

 B.War left a huge debt

 C) Economic causes of war had led to distate for taxes, further weakening Congress' ability to collect taxes.

III. Articles of Confederation

A. Congress was the dominant force (no executive or federal courts), but it was restrained by rules:
1. All bills required 2/3 vote for passage

 2. Any amendment to the Articles required a unanimous vote

 3. Each state had 1 vote.

 4. No power to regulate commerce (business between states)

 5. No tax power (states paid taxes voluntarily).

C. Land Ordinance of 1785

1. Northwest territory land sold to pay off debt.

 2. Land divided into townships six miles square (then into 36 sections of one square mile each).

D. Northwest Ordinance of 1787

1. Territories established, which could eventually become states on an equal basis with the original 13. Needed a minimum of 60,000 inhabitants.

 2. Slavery forbidden in Northwest.

IV. Foreign and Domestic Problems

A. The U.S. had difficulty commanding respect from allies or enemies
1. Britain refused to send an ambassador, to make a commercial treaty, or repeal the Navigation Laws. Trading posts along Canadian border source of trouble with Indians.

 2. Spain seized lands granted to the U.S. by Britain and harassed trade on the Mississippi River.

 3. France demanded repayment of loans made during the Revolution.

B. Domestic disputes arose over economic and political weakness
 
 

1. Some states refused to pay any taxes, while interest on the public debt grew and the nation's credit dwindled.

 2. States began levying duties on each other's products and quarreling over boundaries.

 3. Shays' Rebellion (1786) broke out in western Massachusetts with frustrated farmers losing their farms due to mortgage foreclosures and tax delinquencies.

a) Massachusetts authority put down the uprising with force (killing three)

b) Leaders throughout the nation worried about the potential of domestic unrest.

V. The Call for Reform of the Articles

A. Annapolis Convention, called to deal with interstate commerce squabbling, instead requested a convention to meet in Philadelphia to deal with reforming the Articles.

 B. 55 representatives from 12 states (Rhode Island boycotted) assembled in Philadelphia in May 1787 to "make a more perfect union."

 

Miracle at Philadelphia: The Constitutional Convention

James Madison, Father of the Constitution

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I. The Setting of the Philadelphia Convention

A) Early decision to re-write, rather than tinker with the Articles of Confederation

B) Intent of the Convention

1) Economic –protect property rights and make America safe from democracy.

2) Idealistic--make a perfect Union

3) Pragmatic--dealing with the question of sovereignty. Placing common interests over regional or personal concerns.

II. The Participants

A. 55 delegates from 12 states
1) Young (average age 42), professional (over half were lawyers), men of economic substance

2) Many were Revolutionary War veterans

3) Absent: Thomas Jefferson, Patrick Henry, other Revolutionary War heroes.

B. Key Participants
1) Washington--president of the convention

2) Madison--researched every previous republic

a) Large republic is not only possible, it's preferred

b) Popularly elected officials with sovereignty in the hands of the people, not the states

3) Franklin--81 years old. The steadying influence

III. ***The Compromises***

A. Great Compromise (bicameral legislature representing both people and states)
1. Virginia Plan or Large States Plan(Edmund Randolph) = House of Representatives
a) 2 house legislature with representation based on population for both

b) President and courts chosen by legislature

2. New Jersey Plan or Small State Plan (William Patterson) = Senate

a) Congress with each state having l vote

b) separate executive and judicial branches

c) increased powers of Congress

3. Great Compromise

a) Lower house membership dependent on population (House of Representatives)

b) Upper house with two members from each state (Senate)

B. Three-Fifths Compromise (3/5 of slaves counted for representation and taxation; no Congressional interference with slavery for 20 years)

1. Non-slavery states wanted slaves counted for taxation, but not representation and wanted an end to importation of slaves

2. Slave states wanted slaves counted for representation, but not taxation and no interference with slave trade by the federal government

C. Commerce Compromise (no tax on exports)

1. Cotton and tobacco producing states wanted restriction of taxes on exports

2. Northern industrial states wanted federal tariffs to keep up out cheaper European products and raise revenues for the government.

IV. Ratification

A. Because of fear of opposition from states, only 9 of the 13 were needed for the Constitution to pass

B. Federalists vs. Antifederalists

1) Most Federalists were wealthy and well-educated and wanted a more powerful central government

2) Most Antifederalists were farmers who wanted states rights: the state (not national) governments had the most power

C. Federalist Papers--most influential political literature of the time

- Argued that it was safe for Anti-federalists to agree to Constitution because limitations on governmental power were built into the Constitution

D. Promise of Bill of Rights added to the Constitution helped persuade opponents to ratify it.

 

The Federalist Era (1789-1800)

National Bank of the U.S.

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I. Hamiltonians vs. Jeffersonians

A. Hamilton's views--Man is irrational, corrupt, and guided by corrupt instincts.

1) A strong central government insensitive to the popular will

2) Government's function is maintain order in a chaotic society. It needs to be remote and secure from the people's emotional uprisings.

B. Jefferson's views--man is rational, capable of self-improvement.

1) Government exists to protect man's natural rights to life, liberty, and happiness.

2) A government needs to be limited in its powers and completely responsive to the needs and desires of the people.

3) State governments should have greater power because they are less likely to be oppressive.

II. Hamilton's Financial Plan

A. Protective tariff to stimulate industry

B. National government pays debts of states

C. Willingness to assume Confederation's debts

D. Establishment of a national bank.

E. Whiskey Excise Tax--burden fell on western farmers

1) Whiskey Rebellion (1794)--2000 armed men

2) Washington leads militia to put down revolt, which shows America is going to stay united

III. Jeffersonian Opposition to Hamilton's Plans

A. Strict constructionist view--creation of U.S. Bank exceeded Congressional authority

B. 10th Amendment forbids the national government exercising powers not delegated to it.

C. Commercial and manufacturing favored over farming.

IV. Foreign Problems

A. French Revolution

1) Democrat-Republicans were strongly pro-French and formed Republican clubs advocating war with England and Spain

2) Federalists do business with England, so they don’t want to help France, England’s enemy.

B. Jay Treaty (1794)

1) Trouble with Great Britain arose over fur trading posts in the Northwest and interference with American shipping

2) Jay negotiated with British who agreed to:

a) Abandon posts

b) Limit seizures of American cargoes

C. Pinckney Treaty (1795) gave Americans the right to navigate freely on the Mississippi River.

D. XYZ Affair--French demands for a bribe before negotiating with Americans so angered citizens that they called for war. Congress armed privateers, commissioned an army, and ordered new ships built

1) Naval war with France raged for two years, with 90 French ships captured.

2) France agreed to American terms in the Convention of 1800.

V. Fall of the Federalists

A. Alien & Sedition Acts (1798) sought to lessen criticism of the Federalists

1) Alien Acts made it difficult to become a citizen, provided for detention of aliens in time of war, and allowed the president to deport any alien

2) Sedition Act outlawed criticism of the government or the president

3) Jefferson and Madison wrote the Kentucky & Virginia Resolutions which stated right of states to disobey Congress if laws exceeded Constitutional authority. First statement of nullification.

B. Jefferson's election in 1800 ended the reign of the Federalists.

1) Jefferson and Burr ended up with 73 electoral votes each

2) Hamilton cast his support to Jefferson, ending the tie

3) 12th Amendment allows for president and vice-president to run on the same ticket.

 

Jeffersonian Era Portrait of Thomas Jefferson by Rembrandt Peale

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I. Jeffersonian Democracy

A. Only educated, land-owning men can vote

B. Jefferson's views:

1) Faith in the perfectability of man

2) Insistence on strong local governments

II. Domestic Problems

A. Midnight judges & judicial review
1. Marbury and 15 other Federalist judges were appointed as Adams' term expired.

2. John Marshall rejected their claim, contending that the Judiciary Act of 1789 was unconstitutional.

- Victory for Federalists--greatly expanded power of Supreme Court by establishing precedent of court ruling laws unconstitutional.

B. Aaron Burr kills Hamilton in duel

III. Foreign Problems

A. Louisiana Purchase (1803)
1. France acquires Louisiana from Spain in 1800.

2. Jefferson sent agents in Paris to purchase New Orleans.

3. Napolean offers entire territory for $15 million

4. Jefferson violated his belief in strict construction of Constitution by using necessary and proper clause.

5. Two expeditions sent out to explore new land:

a) Lewis & Clark (1804-6) ascended Missouri to source, then crossed the Rockies to the Pacific with the help of the Native American woman, Sacajawea.

b) Zebulon Pike (1805) explored headwaters of Mississippi and southern Rocky Mountains.

B. Conflict over neutral rights

1. British and French ships seized American cargoes and sailors (impressment)

2. Jefferson responded with Embargo Act which prohibited all American trade with foreign countries

a) Greatly harmed American shipping

b) Jefferson became object of hate in New England

3. Non-intercourse Act replaced Embargo Act

- Reopened trade with all nations except England and France

C. Western War-Hawks demands for war

1. Reasons for western pressure
a) Desire for Canadian land
i) Future fur-trading

ii) Region needed for expansion of settlers

b) Indian warfare with confederation organized by Tecumseh. Battle of Tippecanoe convinced war hawks of British assistance to Indians.

 

The Legacy of the Marshall Court (1801-1835)

Chief Justice John Marshall (Boston Athenaeum)

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I. Major Goals of Marshall

A. Increase the powers of the national government

B. Diminish the powers of the states

II. Strengthening the National Government

A. Cases expanding the authority of the Supreme Court
- Marbury v. Madison (1803) gave the Court the power of judicial review.

B. Cases expanding the powers of Congress

1. McCullough v. Maryland (1819) upheld the right of Congress to charter a national bank, thus putting into national law the doctrine of implied powers.

2. Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) gave the national government undisputed control over interstate commerce by ruling invalid a steamboat monopoly chartered by New York state. This freed internal transportation from state restraint.

 

War of 1812

Constitution and Guerriere, 1812

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I. Breakdown of Peaceful Coercion

A. America dropped its embargo with France.

B. British support of Shawnee Confederation led by Tecumseh and the Prophet proved at battle of Tippecanoe (1811).

C. War Hawks call for war. Issues:

1) Land hunger

2) British impressment

3) Indian attacks with help of England

D. Despite pleas from New England to remain calm, Madison asked Congress for a war declaration on June 18, 1812.

II. Military Campaigns of 1812-13

A. Three-pronged attack of Canada failed due to American incompetence.

B. US burn York (now Toronto), leading to later British burning of Washington, D.C.

C. British navy overwhelmed US ships and blockaded coast from New England to Georgia.

III. War's Conclusion

A. Attack on Washington--4000 British troops burn White House, other buildings.

B. At Treaty of Ghent, American and British negotiators agree to end fighting on December 24, 1814

C. British invade New Orleans, only to be defeated by American troops under Andrew Jackson's command in January 1815, making Jackson a national hero

 

Sectionalism & National Growth